Short Answer Questions : Kalibangan, Painted grey ware culture, Jain councils and sets , Tamilaham , Arthashastra

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Kalibangan

Kalibangan is an important archaeological site of the Indus Valley Civilization located in present-day Rajasthan on the banks of the Ghaggar River. It represents both Early and Mature Harappan phases.

Kalibangan is known for its well-planned urban layout with fortified citadel and lower town. One of its unique discoveries is the evidence of a ploughed agricultural field, indicating advanced farming practices. Archaeologists also found fire altars, suggesting ritual activities. The use of mud-brick structures and a grid-pattern street system reflects organised town planning.

Thus, Kalibangan provides valuable evidence of early urbanisation, agriculture, and religious practices in the Harappan civilisation, making it a significant site for understanding ancient Indian history.

Painted Grey Ware Culture

The Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture is an important archaeological culture dated between c. 1200–600 BCE. It is mainly found in the Gangetic plains and is associated with the later Vedic period.

PGW pottery is fine grey-coloured ware painted with simple geometric designs in black. Sites such as Hastinapur and Atranjikhera have yielded such pottery. The people lived in small settlements, practiced agriculture, and used iron tools. The culture marks the beginning of urban growth and political formations like the Mahajanapadas.

Thus, PGW culture represents a transitional phase between the later Vedic age and the emergence of early historic states in northern India.

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Jain Councils and Sects

After the death of Mahavira, Jainism underwent divisions due to differences in practices and interpretation of teachings. Councils were held to preserve Jain scriptures.

The first Jain Council was held at Pataliputra in the 3rd century BCE to compile the teachings. The second major council at Vallabhi (5th–6th century CE) finalised the Jain canon. Differences over monastic discipline and practices led to the division into two major sects:

• Digambara (sky-clad), who believed monks should not wear clothes.

• Svetambara (white-clad), who believed monks could wear white garments.

These councils and sectarian divisions shaped the doctrinal and organisational structure of Jainism.

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 Tamilaham

Tamilaham (Tamilakam) refers to the ancient Tamil region of South India during the early historic period. It included present-day Tamil Nadu and parts of Kerala and Sri Lanka.

The region was ruled by three major dynasties—the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas. Sangam literature provides information about society, trade, warfare, and culture. Trade with the Roman world brought prosperity. Society was organised on clan-based and occupational lines.

Tamilaham represents a vibrant and independent cultural zone with strong trade links and rich literary traditions.

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Arthashastra

The Arthashastra is an ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economy, and administration, traditionally attributed to Kautilya (Chanakya), the advisor of Chandragupta Maurya.

The text discusses kingship, duties of rulers, taxation, espionage, military organisation, and law. It emphasises a strong central authority and practical governance. The work provides detailed information about Mauryan administration and economic policies.

The Arthashastra is a significant source for understanding political theory and administrative practices in ancient India.